Theme 5: Design Research (first post)

The design of a study includes the study type such as descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review and meta-analytic. Another aspect is about sub-type like descriptive-longitudinal case study, research questions, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design and the data collection methods if is applicable. 

Empirical evidence is known as sense experience, which is the knowledge or source acquired by means of the senses, particularly by observation and experimentation. Empirical implies that the information is based on experience and the data is the information we gather about something. Thus, the information acquired by scientists through experimentation and observation is called "empirical data". To gather the empirical data is an essential part of the scientific process. 

The scientific method involves observing a phenomenon in order to form an idea about what the researchers observed and tested the idea with an experiment to see if it is correct, recording the results of the experiment, which would be analyzed the results to arrive as a conclusion. 

There are two types of method of analyzing the empirical data: qualitative and quantitative. On the one hand, qualitative data is the data that can be categorized based on qualities. This type of data involves descriptions and also be observed without measuring. On the other hand, quantitative data is a measurement to be represented by a numerical value. 

In the first paper "Finding design qualities in a tangible programming space - Fernaeus & Tholander", the empirical data concludes that providing a methodological example of developing a tangible programming space in order to allow children aged from 6-12 to collaboratively create their own dynamic play-words to run on a computer screen. The system has been evaluated through workshop activities in an art gallery addressing how the physical resources were appropriated for developing a sense of a shared and focused activity, including the social play as well as construction of dynamic and interactive systems.

In the second paper "Differentiated Driving Range - Lundström", the empirical data includes an understanding of how driving range information is presented to drivers of electric cars today. In order to conduct a state-of-the-art analysis, the experiments is required to present most of the available electric cars on the home market in the country, including Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi iMiev, Volvo C30 Electic, Renault Kangoo Z.E, and Renault Twizy. The experiment is involved looking up available online information regarding the user interfaces in different car models, as given in online descriptions by companies. 

Theme 4: Quantitative Research (second post)

Quantitative Research methods depend on numerical measurements which involve asking participants directly using questionnaires, measuring using electronic equipment, and utilizing the observation under controlled conditions. In order to interpret the results, the researchers make user of statistical tests. Take hypothesis testing experiment for instance: firstly, we need to formulate a hypothesis. Secondly, we have to select a sample population for whom to test it. Then carefully design an experiment from which we will gather data; in other words, gather data in another manner like the existing data. After that, we pilot the experiment, as many times as necessary to refine its design for its iterative design process. At last, conduct and analyze the experiment to follow the plan closely.

Be aware of the controlled experiment is the most important part in the quantitative research. There are two methods to do under carefully controlled conditions: we may need to manipulate an independent variable or many results. And we have to observe how dependent variables vary as a result. However, we cannot neglect the fact that measures are often used in combination. While many experiments have a single dependent variable test, in a single statistical test it is much more common that the experiment is more complicated with many independent variables and other dependent ones. Then we conclude the answer that the answer does not depend on the test rather building a logical argument in order to support the several tests.

The function of using the questionnaire have several disciplines:there are numerous tests and experiments to ensure the indeed answer that the question was intended for before a questionnaire is regarded as "valid" in the experimental psychology. The researchers do not just make up their own questionnaires towards answering the hypotheses at hand. Instead, they use the standard ones, which have already been tested before.

We could also summarize that a hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship between data sets. This is compared to be an alternative to a null hypothesis, of no relationship between the data sets. Therefore, the comparison is statistically significant if the relationship would be an unlikely realization of the null hypothesis, based on a threshold probability from the significant level. Hypothesis tests are used to determine the outcomes of a study, which leads to a rejection of the null hypothesis for a pre-specified level of significance.

Theme 4: Quantitative research (the first post)

The benefits of using the quantitative method are:

• When the survey involves a convenience sample, data can be collected and analyzed fairly and quickly.
• When the survey involves a statistically valid random sample, the results from the sample can be generalized to the entire population if the response rate is high enough.
• Surveys can provide reliable or repeatable direction for planning programs and messages
• Surveys can be anonymous, which is useful for the sensitive topics
• Similar to the qualitative research methods, surveys can include visual material which can be used to pretest prototypes.
• The researchers can generalize their findings beyond their participant group.

The limitations of using the quantitative method are:

• There are limited ability to probe the answers
• People willing to respond the survey may share the characteristics that don't apply to the main audience as a whole, resulting a potential bias in the study
• the quantitative method can be costly

The pros of using the qualitative method:

• Issues and subjects covered can be evaluated in depth and in detail.
• Interviews are not limited to particular questions and can be redirected or guided by research in real time
• The direction and framework of research can be revised in a short time as soon as the fresh information emerge
• The data in qualitative research relies on human experience which is more compelling and powerful than data gathered through quantitative research
• Complexities and subtleties about the subject of the research covered is usually missed by many positive inquiries.
• With this type of research, the research has a clear vision on what to expect. The researchers can collect the data in a genuine effort of plugging data to bigger, clearer picture.

The cons of using the qualitative method:

• The quality of research is heavily dependent on the skills of the researcher which can be easily influenced by personal idiosyncrasies and biases of researchers. 
• Rigidity is more difficult to assess, demonstrate and maintain the data
• The quantity of data makes interpretation and analysis time-consuming
• The presence of researcher in the process of data gathering is unavoidable and can therefore affect on influence the responses of subjects.
• Issues on confidentiality and anonymity can pose problems during presentation of findings
• Findings can be time-consuming and difficult to present in visual ways.

Theme 3: Research and Theory (the second post)

Theory is a from of practice which is unproven or speculative, in other words, some people even call it "hypothesis." A theory is a set of propositions that aims to identify objects and their relations to each other. An abstract entity that implies to describe, explain, and enhance understanding of the world to provide predictions of what will happen in the future giving a basis for intervention and action. In short, theory is something we build and construct, it does no exist by itself.

The connections between phenomena to explain why, how and under what circumstances acts, events, structures and thoughts is about the concept of theory. Scientific theories are in attempt to describe the causal logic between cause and event. When a theory is tested and accepted by a majority of experts in a specific field, it can be seem as true. If there is already a commonly established theory, it can take a long time to convince people that a new theory is valid and should replace the old theory.

Though there are varied views on what theory is, one specific theory could be more suitable in one context than in another context. Theory can be confirmed or established by observation or experiments which can be supported by diagrams, variables, references and hypotheses. Moreover, theory requires context and logical reasoning, which should be more generalized. Sometimes scientific theories can also be viewed as scientific models, which is a logical framework in attempt to represent the reality, similar to the way that a map is a graphical model that represents the territory of a city or country. In this regard, theories are a specific category of models which fulfill the necessary criteria.

Some people claim that theories whose subject matter consists not in empirical data, but rather in ideas in the realm of philosophical theories as contrasted with scientific theories. Some of the elementary theorems of a philosophical theory are statements whose truth cannot necessarily be scientifically tested through empirical observation

There are five theory types in information systems research: Analysis, Explanation, Prediction, Explanation and prediction(EP) and design and action. The paper I choose is The Benefits of Facebook “Friends:” Social Capital and College Students’. by Nicole B. Ellison et al (2007) from the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. The study basically examines the relationship between use of Facebook and the formation of social capital. The paper explores a dimension that assesses one's ability to stay connected with members online, which explains a strong association between use of Facebook being to bridging social capital. However, the paper only addresses the problem without providing the insightful method to solve the problem.

Comments of Theme 1 (Theory of knowledge and theory of science)

1. https://dm2572-16.blogspot.se/2016/09/theme-11.html?showComment=1475506656172

2. https://u1h4muxc.blogspot.se/2016/09/theme-11-theory-of-knowledge-and-theory.html?showComment=1475507007358

3. https://u1eqtjc8.blogspot.se/2016/09/in-preface-to-second-edition-of.html?showComment=1475507269151#c1319509129736318881

4. https://u1bauz11.blogspot.se/2016/09/theme-1-theory-of-knowledge-and-theory.html?showComment=1475507571830#c167297469407882508

5. https://u17fpbu5.blogspot.se/2016/09/pre-theme-1-theory-of-knowledge-and.html?showComment=1475507739235#c624240772390139608

6. https://u1gixy4z.blogspot.se/2016/09/theme-1-theory-of-knowledge-and-theory_2.html?showComment=1475507879479#c2437388841511069897

Theme 2: Critical Media Studies ( the second post)

During the lecture, we examined the definition of the Enlightenment implying behind it. "The promise of the Enlightenment did not deliver as it promises." Ironically, the majority of people were unable to handle the broken promise of the Enlightenment. The Renaissance and Enlightenment movement took place in the 18th Century, which the ruling monarchies, in other words, the governments, had more power and control over the laws of nature. This kind of movement came from a operating method called "control, precision, and certainly" with the means of deduct reasoning.

On the other hand, some philosophers argued that "it was not a science that emphasized understanding, balance or harmony with universal forces and principles in order to work harmoniously with a nature to discover its intrinsic or essential values as a platform from which to operate." With this claim, there was no clear objects towards the involvement of the universe, culture, or the society in a whole. However, the regard is the total opposite to the fact during that time. It was a War against Nature.

There is a transition process: first of all, myth is to erase the unknown Nemesis, then the Enlightenment is to de-mystify the world. Observe regularity is for the human intervention impossible. Second, there are some distinct difference between realism and nominalism (ontology) and the other contrast is rationalism and empiricism (scientific methods). In this regard, we can conclude that thinking is unnecessary, or we can illustrate that thinking reproduces the world unchangeable clockwork nemesis. To move on, there are two terms called "conformity and passivity", which we can say the inability is to hear the yet unheard."

Also, I was surprised that the role of culture in society expressed during the class is different from my impression at first. It is said that consciousness such as arts and sciences, based on the dreams and its explanation, metaphysical subjects and astrology, play an essential part in the culture and life of the people's from different ethic groups in modern part of Europe.

There are two key points we have to think in depth, "How can we think change in a culture that is based on regularity and necessity?" and "the concept identifies a gap between the existing and the possible."

Theme 3: Research and Theory (first post)

      The Journal of Communication (JOC) is one of the top-ranked journals around the world. The aim of the journal is to publish the articles related to communication theory and research, from all of the latest and emerging research with the fields of communication and media studies. The scope of the journal includes some areas such as social media and social networks, digital communication, media studies and journalism and mass media.

      The Journal of Communication also publishes the scholarship on all aspects of communication studies. The articles published on the journal address critical theoretical and empirical questions related to the field of communication, which are also relevant to experts within and across specializations.

      The article I selected is published on The Journal of Communication, which is the study regarding the effects of message and social cues on selective exposure to political information on social media.
Social media users was found to interact with measure of psychological well-being, which suggests that it might provide greater benefits for users experiencing low self-esteem and low life satisfaction.
The paper examines the theory of explanation, which only addresses the problem of the theory fail to provide the solution on how to solve it.

Theme 1: Theory of knowledge and theory of science (the second post)

The difference between naturalism and scientism is distinct. Scientism is a belief that all the universal belongs to the scientific method, and empirical science rules the approaches to the most viewpoints; also, to constitute the most valuable parts of human being.

The contemporary naturalism consists of ontological and epistemological naturalism. First of all, ontological naturalism, which is also called the metaphysical naturalism, is a "viewpoint that holds that there is nothing but natural elements, principles and relations of all kind studied by the natural sciences." Secondly, the naturalistic epistemology explains "an approach to the theory of knowledge that puts great emphasis on the application of methods, results and theories from the empirical sciences."

The scientific revolution is the existence of modern science which develops the great advancement of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry transforming the views of society into nature.

In the text of "Critique of Pure Reason" by Kant, the attempt of the author is to correct the extreme views by assuming the essential arguments for both perception and conception. According to Kant, "Perception without conception, is blind; while conception without perception is empty." Kant intends to put an emphasis on sense-perception.

There are two ways of judgments: synthetic and analytic. On the one hand, synthetic judgment explains that whose predications are thoroughly different from their subjects; in other words, synthetic judgment is informative but is in need of justification to prove the principle. On the other hand, analytic judgment depicts that whose predications are merely explicative and non-contradiction. Hence, synthetic judgments are relatively uncontroversial facts which come to our sensory experience. Analytic judgment will never be proven for there is no need to support the explicative assertion.

Transcendental idealism is divided into four types: formal idealism, critical idealism, skeptical idealism, and empirical idealism.

Time and space are the forms of intuition. There are four forms of intuition categories: quantity (unity, plurality, and totality), quality( reality, negation, and limitation), relation (substance, causality, and community) and modality (possibility, existence and necessity)

Theme 2: Critical Media Studies first post

Dialectic of Enlightenment

1. What is "Enlightenment"?
Enlightenment literally means the movement of the late 17 and 18 centuries stressing reason and
individualism. Instead of putting emphasis on the tradition, the Enlightenment was an intellectual
movement about an insight or awakening of the true nature and reality. 

2. What is "Dialectic"?
Dialectic is the art of of investigating the truth of opinions which is also an enquiry to metaphysical contradictions. To put it easily, the dialectic is a discussion between two people seeking the solutions.

3. What is "Nominalism" and why is it an important concept in the text?
The Nominalism is the doctrine explaining that universals are merely names without any existence. Only particular numbers, properties and objects exist around the universal. Having no independent existence, the nominalism argues that objects exist only by names.

4. What is the meaning and function of "myth" in Adorno and Horkheimer's argument?
According the context, Max Horkheimer and Theodore W. Adorno depict that "myth is already enlightenment, and enlightenment reverts to mythology." The historical progression of the enlightenment has converted its original purposes of nature. 

The Work of Art in the Age of Technical Reproductivity

1. In the beginning of the essay, Benjamin talks about the relation between "superstructure" and "substructure" in the capitalist order of production. What does the concepts "superstructure" and "substructure" mean in this context and what is the point of analyzing cultural production from a Marxist perspective?

Superstructure and substructure are two different concepts in the readings. On the one hand, substructure, in other words, is the foundation. On the other hand, superstructure is the transformation of the substructure. Benjamin made a great distinction between the substructure and superstructure. According to Marx, the superstructure governs the substructure which is impossible to change and also unites all the production of the substructure.

2. Culture has revolutionary potentials based on the reading. Some people argue that the viewpoint of culture differs from every points of view while others mention that culture can determine how we see thing by ourself. Benjamin had sought the political transformation of the arts to bring about social changes on cultural revolution.

3. Perception can be both naturally and historically determined. Benjamin mentioned that a change in perception and its effects in the wake of the film and photography and also described how the sense change through human being's entire mode of existence. The way we perceive the visual work of art has its difference and consequences leaves to be determined.  

4. The concept of Aura determines how Benjamin sees things in his viewpoint. Based on the context, Benjamin mentions that "aura" is a 'strange web of space and time" or "a distance as close as it can be." From the context, the aura represents the originality and authenticity of a work itself. Benjamin mentioned the phenomenon of loss of the aura through mechanical production. For instance, a photograph is merely an image while a painting remains the original aura. 

Theme 1: Theory of knowledge and theory of science (First Post)

1. At the end of the discussion of the definition "Knowledge is perception", Socrates argues that we do not see and hear "with" the eyes and the eras, but "through" the eyes and the ears. How are we to understand this? And in what way is it correct to say that Socrates argument is directed towards what we in modern terms call "empiricism"?

Socrates and Theaetetus continually discussed and denied the theory of perception. The better way of indicating the theory is not "with" the eyes and ears but "through" the eyes and the ears.  All the things are assemble in one single form which describes as "the mind." Through the sense called the tools, we use our mind to sense everything. Using the mind to determine everything in the universe sounds unrealistic but Socrates argued that it is the exact way to define the things we see and hear. The mind through the senses to determine the existence of fact and contrast and independence among the things. Therefore, we can illustrate that impression determines the knowledge instead of image.

2. In the preface to the second edition of "Critique of Pure Reason" (page B xvi) Kant says: "Thus far is has been assumed that all our cognition must conform to objects. On that presupposition, however, all our attempts to establish something about them a priori, by means of concepts through which our cognition would be expanded, have come to nothing. Let us, therefore, try to find out by experiment whether we shall not make better progress in the problems of metaphysics if we assume that objects must conform to our cognition." How are we to understand this?

From the context, we can understand that there is a huge gap between the true knowledge and the false one. "The true judgment may well be knowledge" saying determines the false judgment as "heterodoxy". Our cognition is collaborated to follow the objects. However, there are some people arguing that our cognition have to be distorted by the false judgment. In order to reach the consensus, the majority of people believe that our cognition is to follow the order in the universe. To solve the problems of objects conforming to our cognition, we have to understand what the "true judgment" means firstly. To distinguish the true judgment and the false one, we have to determine the cognition.